Histological findings confirmed the protective effects of these vitamins on tissue damage caused by nTiO2. These parameters are maintained near to normal levels. In vitamin-treated rats, the levels of TOS and LPO significantly decreased, and the level of TAC, the activities of GPx and SOD, and the gene expression of GPx, SOD, and Nrf-2 increased compared to nTiO2 group (p < 0.05). nTiO2 significantly increased TOS and LPO levels, whereas it decreased TAC level, GPx and SOD activities, and gene expression of GPx, SOD, and Nrf-2 in spleen tissues of rats compared with controls (p < 0.05). To evaluate the spleen histopathological changes, H&E staining was carried out. Also, the gene expression of GPx, SOD, and nuclear factor-E2-related factor-2 (Nrf-2) were determined by qRT-PCR. To investigate the status of oxidative stress, total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total oxidant status (TOS), and lipid peroxidation (LPO) were determined in spleen tissue as well as the activities of antioxidant enzymes, including glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Thirty-six male Wistar rats were randomly divided into 6 groups: Control 1 (received water), nTiO2, nTiO2 + vitamin E, nTiO2 + vitamin A, nTiO2 + vitamin A and E, and Control 2 (received olive oil). So in this study, the protective effects of vitamin A and E on the nTiO2-induced oxidative stress in rats’ spleen tissues were examined. Different components with antioxidant capacity can protect the tissues. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nTiO2) can accumulate in different tissues and damage them with oxidative stress induction. Moreover, the role of titania nanotubes in regenerative medicine and nanomedicine applications, such as localized drug delivery system, immunomodulatory agents, antibacterial agents, and hemocompatibility, is investigated, and the paper concludes with the future outlook of titanium alloys as biomaterials.
Future research will be directed toward advanced manufacturing technologies, such as powder-based additive manufacturing, electron beam melting and laser melting deposition, as well as analyzing the effects of alloying elements on the biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, and mechanical properties of titanium. Then, we review the recent advancement of the utility of titanium in diverse biomedical areas, its functional properties, mechanisms of biocompatibility, host tissue responses, and various relevant antimicrobial strategies. We first explore the developmental history of titanium. This review aims to establish a credible platform for the current and future roles of titanium in biomedicine. The scientific and clinical understanding of titanium and its potential applications, especially in the biomedical field, are still in the early stages. Titanium alloys are manufactured into the three types of α, β, and α + β. These properties are crucial for producing high-strength metallic alloys for biomedical applications. Furthermore, titanium promotes osseointegration without any additional adhesives by physically bonding with the living bone at the implant site. Due to the excellent mechanical tribological properties, corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, and antibacterial properties of titanium, it is getting much attention as a biomaterial for implants. Commercially pure titanium and titanium alloys have been among the most commonly used materials for biomedical applications since the 1950s.
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